Alfred Adler's Theory of Psychological Birth Order (Family Constellation)

By:  Kimberly Swanson, MS-Psy, CNA

According to Adler, the sequence in a person’s life is developed by the age of five (Murdock, 2013).  This is due to genetics and a person’s upbringing and surroundings, personal outlook and lifestyle is molded during the earlier years of life and it is very hard to alter (Adler, 1929/1965).  In early life, children are very vulnerable; this was observed by Adler and he speculated that humans at the beginning of life feel inferior or insignificant (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956).

Family constellations occurs when the family has determines the critical developmental stages of their offspring (Murdock, 2013); this is when the birth order theory comes into play with individual psychology (Murdock, 2013).  The biological order is the order in which a child is born among their siblings and the psychological birth order is how the biological order affects the child’s outlook, behaviors and outcomes in life.

According to Murdock (2013), the first child is usually the ones who get the most parental attention and usually they interact well with adults.  But when the second child is born, the first usually feel that they have lost some of the attention (dethroned) (Adler, 1927/1969). Often times, the oldest are held responsible or have to look after the younger siblings. When the oldest child becomes an adult, they tend to like authoritative roles in jobs or in positions. The middle child often times feel like they are sandwiched or squeezed in the middle, whereas the youngest child gets the center of attention (Murdock, 2013).

References

Adler, A.  (1969). The science of living (H.L. Ansbacher & R.R. Ansbacher, eds. & Trans).  New York:  Doubleday.  (Original work published 1929). 

Ansbacher, H. & Ansbacher, R.  (Eds).   (1956). The individual psychology of Alfred Adler.  New York:  Basic Books.

Murdock, N.L.  (2013). Theories of counseling & psychotherapy (3rd ed.).  Upper Saddle River, NJ:  Pearson.

Copyright in 2016 by ©Messenger Publishing, Inc.

Carl Rogers (Psychologist) - Biography

By Kimberly Swanson, M.S.- PSY, CNA

Dr. Carl Rogers (Psychologist)

In 1902, Rogers was born in Oak Park, Illinois.  Dr. Rogers received his B.A. from the University of Wisconsin in 1924, a M.A. from Columbia University in 1928, and his Ph.D. in psychotherapy from Columbia University in 1931 (Hall, 1997).  In 1940, Rogers became a professor at Ohio State University where he taught psychology and remained until 1945. He then transferred to the University of Chicago in 1945 where he served as the professor of psychology and the executive secretary at the Counseling Center (Hall, 1997). In 1957, he worked at the University of Wisconsin in the school of psychology and psychiatry.  He later continued to work at various colleges and universities.

Carl Rogers is a psychologist who has written 16 books and several articles on human personality (Journal Psyche, 2015).  Rogers developed techniques which reshaped therapy dynamics.  In traditional setting, the therapeutic relationships were based on the ideologies and principles of psychologists such as Freud and others; their ideologies suggested that that psychotherapist guides the patient and the patient follows the doctor’s lead (Journal Psyche, 2015).  American psychotherapist, Carl Rogers, created the non-directive, client-centered, technique to therapy, which emphasized person-to person interaction between the psychotherapist and the client (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016);  the client is the one who makes the decision as to how long the sessions will last for treatments (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2016).

Rogers suggested that the psychologist and patient dynamics would more efficient if there is a mutual understanding between the two.  Rogers expanded his theory to include the theorization of personality learning, cross-cultural relationship, and etc. within the field of counseling and psychology (Journal Psyche, 2015). 

References

Encyclopedia Britannica (2016).  Carl R. Rogers.  Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-R-Rogers.

Hall, K.J.  (1997). Carl Rogers.  Retrieved from http://muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/rogers.htm#Biography.

Journal Psyche.  (2015). Revisiting Carl Rogers Theory of Personality.  Retrieved from http://journalpsyche.org/revisiting-carl-rogers-theory-of-personality/.

Copyright in 2016 by ©Messenger Publishing, Inc.

Introduction to Freud's Psychoanalysis

By:  Kimberly Swanson, M.S. - PSY, CNA

Sigmund Freud

During the 17^th and majority of the 18th century, publications were geared with a “neoclassicist” view in which human behavior is based on religion and it was considered a sin if thought to think  otherwise (Summers, 2011).   They believed that “order and reason” was needed to control human thoughts especially when it came to science and the birth of, psychology, the science of the mind (Summers, 2011).   

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology lab at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Psychology as is relatively new science that is growing and is constantly evolving.   During psychology’s evolution, it produced many branches of studies and approaches to the field such as Wundtian Psychology, Titchenerian structuralism, and functional psychology.  Then the it changed into Gestalt Psychology which was for those who opposed Wundtian Psychology.   Right around the same time of Gestalt psychology, a new approach was being developed and that was psychoanalysis.  Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud from Freiberg, Moravia which is now Pribor, Czech Republic.

Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud in 1895 which was marked by the publishing of his first book, Studies in Hysteria.  Freud’s psychoanalysis is based on his personality traits and theories, concept of analyzing/interpreting dreams to explain what is going on in the conscious and subconscious mind, and his system of psychotherapy.  His concept of psychoanalysis was what paved his legendary mark into psychological history. Freud’s name is more popular and famous than any other psychological scientist in the past due to his style and approach to analyzing the mind.   His face and name embraces the cover of modern day publications such as Newsweek (2006) and feature stories in The Wall Street Journal (Schultz & Schultz, 2012).

References

Schultz, D.P., & Schultz, S.E. (2012). Philosophical influences on psychology (10^th Eds.), A History of Modern Psychology (pp. 65-86) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press.

Summers, F., (2011).  Psychoanalysis: Romantic, not wild.  Psychoanalytic Psychology, 28(1), p. 13-32. 

Copyright in 2016 by ©Messenger Publishing, Inc.

Cultural Issues in Psychopathology

Cultural Issues in Psychopathology 

By:  Kimberly Swanson, M.S. - Psychology, CNA

In todays’ society, there is stigma or negative connotation when it comes to seeking and receiving mental or psychological services.  Often times, these negative point of views towards mental health stems from cultural beliefs.  It is apparent that cultural issues are attributed to depression and cultural issues and is also a major factor to the treatment of depression.

Understanding Culture and Mental Illness

The beginning stages of incorporating culture into clinical psychological research started with Kleinman (1977). Kleinman (1977) believed that culture is the basis of human behavior especially when it comes to “mood disorders”.  Fields (2010) states that, clinicians need to be understanding and mindful of patients’ culture while treating them.  There are two points of views, when it comes to culture and depression (Fields, 2010).  The two points of views are:   1. “universal views” – It applies to all cultural lines and can be measured with proven evidence;    2.   “cultural-bound” views - is based on a specific culture and cannot be measure (Field, 2010).

In Field’s (2010) research, it shows the current views on “multicultural competence, the American Psychological Association (APA) Multicultural Guidelines” which points out the different cultural views on mental health and the “cross-cultural validation of depression”.  According to Fields (2010), cultural definition and “interaction” is constantly changing and evolving.

Identifying culture as an intricate part of in the care of mental patients is a new phenomenon that is taking place within psychological research (Fields, 2010).  The purpose of incorporating culture into psychological research is to address the complex issues that are often found when working with a diverse population (Fields, 2010).

Examples of Culture Issues & Depression

Asian Pacific Views on Depression

In the MyPsychLab (2013), “Martha: Major Depressive Disorder” video, it discusses how depression is viewed from an Asian Pacific patient name Martha.  Martha suffered from depression due to a failed marriage.  At first, Martha did not seek treatment because of her cultural issues.    Nira Singh (Director of children youth and family outpatient services of RAMS Mental Health Agency) mentions that, “there is a stigma for most Asian Pacific clients who utilize the services”.  Getting medical help is seen as more important than getting psychological assistance (MyPsychLab, 2013).  Traditional families of Asian Pacific Islanders may see treatments as shameful depending on their view on mental health (MyPsychLab, 2013).

Nira Singh mentions that, “often times that patients do not know that these services are available to them and is available in their native language” (MyPsychLab, 2013).  In the video, Singh also states that: “as model minorities, you are not suppose to have mental problems…There is a feeling of shame when acknowledging a weakness” (MyPsychLab, 2013).  More outreach is needed in educating the public on depression and how it affects people’s lives.

Bosnian Views on Depression

In Fields’ (2010) research, there were many examples on how different cultures view depression.  One example is a case, “The Case of G,” about a Bosnian refugee who suffered from the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).  The patients’ PTSD was triggered by war and “the tragic losses” that he had to face in “his home country”. G did not have to a psychologist or therapist in Bosnia because of negative cultural views.  The patient views himself as a “traditional man” and in his country, seeing a therapist often times means that you are “crazy” (Fields, 2010).   He was concerned about being viewed as crazy by others.  For the Bosnian refugee, not being able to speak English was also a perceived barrier.  Having this perceived language barrier makes the patient of a different culture feel “inadequate” (Fields, 2010).

In G’s case, there was a need for social interactions.  According to Fields (2010), the patient’s plan of care was mostly geared for “cultural dynamics” instead of starting an initial “treatment plan”.  Once G received the support of getting more social interactions with peers with similar cultures and backgrounds, G’s condition greatly improved (Fields, 2010).

How Cultural Issues Affects Treatments for Depression

The American health care system is fragmented.  These fragmentations makes is extremely difficult for patients to receive the proper treatment for depression.  Doctors, mental “health professionals”, “patients”, and “families” face the dilemma of a divisive system that separates the “medical and mental health” in its treatment options and line of care (Heinrich, 2000).  By bridging and incorporating the medical with the psychological, there would be a more balanced and improved system of care for mental health patients, especially those who are suffering from depression (Heinrich, 2000). 

Overcoming perceived cultural differences in patients when it comes to their line of care is also extremely important.  Clinicians must be able to understand their client’s culture in order to provide the patients with the best treatment options for depression.  Each case for depression is different and must be treated as so.   Getting into the mind of the patient and seeing from their point of view enables the mental health professional to better serve their clients.  Clinical research and case studies like Fielding, (2010) and Heinrich (2000) has shown  that understanding a patient’s culture means getting to the root  of the problem.  This ideology of culture is paving the way for a more positive solution for patient care and for improving their overall mental health. 

References

Fields, A.J. (2010).  Multicultural research and practice:  Theoretical issues and maximizing cultural

Exchange.  Professional Psychology:  Research and Practice, 41(3).  196-201.  Doi:10.1037/a0017938.

Heinrich, R.L. (2000).  Improving depression care:  Disseminating skills or changing organizational

structure and culture?  Families, Systems, & Health.  18(4). 

Kleinman, A.M. (1977).  Depression, somatization and the “new cross-cultural psychiatry.”

MyPsychLab, Pearson Video Series .  (2013).  Speaking Out: The DSM in Context: Martha:

Major Depressive Disorder [on-line video].  Available from

www.pearsonmylabandmastering.com.


Copyright in 2015 by ©Messenger Publishing, Inc.

Symptoms and Etiology of Anorexia Nervosa

By:  Kimberly Swanson, M.S. - Psychology, CNA

All over the world, there  are various views and ideology of what is considered beautiful especially when it comes to body images.  For example, in some African countries such as Nigeria,  a woman who has a few extra pounds or curves is considered attractive.  But in other countries such as the United States, being skinny  or thin is what is considered beautiful.  This strong powerful message of the standard of beauty is often times depicted in the media and is forever etched into the minds of women and female adolescents.  Professional models that grace the covers of fashion magazines are extremely thin and often times appear to be malnourished.  There have been some cases in the modeling industry where anorexia is a growing medical issue.  Some models starve themselves in an effort to try to keep up with the body image of the being extra thin.

"The average woman is 5”4’ and weighs 140 pounds. The average model is 5”11’ and weighs 117 pounds. Most fashion models are thinner than 98% of American women" (Smolak, 1996). 

History of Anorexia

Anorexia is not a new phenomenon that has occurred in modern times; it has been first identified in the late 1800’s by Charles Lasegue in Paris and Sir William Gull in London (Butcher, 2013).  This condition is more prevalent among women than men.    Tolman (1932) first developed the expectancy  theory in which “social  learning experiences” are developed into the ideology  that  a behavior has to be done continuously in order to fit into society.  There are many more current clinical studies done on the etiology of  anorexia (e.g. Eagles' et al., 2006, a case study on family composition in anorexia nervosa) and another modern research (e.g. Annus et al., 2008) on the etiology of eating disorders.  

Symptoms & DSM-5 Criterion for Anorexia

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), there are three criterion for the symptoms of anorexia.  The three  major symptoms for the diagnosis for  anorexia in DSM-5 are:  1.  “Restriction of energy intake”, 2.  “Intense fear of gaining weight”,  and  Interruption of  “body weight  or shape experienced” (APA, 2013).   

Etiology of Anorexia

Current studies has shown that the cause of eating disorders stems from the social ideology  the  being in control of your weight in order to be thin is what  really matters (Hohlstein, Smith, & Atlas, 1998).  According to Stice (2002), expectancy theory  is the learned behaviors that is based  on the ideology that being thin is important and is needed  in order to boost confidence and self-worth.  It is believed that the family makeup is a major contributing factor in to eating disorders (Eagles et al., 2006).  There is a correlation in family structures such as biological and sociocultural factors when it comes to eating disorders (Eagles et al., 2006).

Before (Annus et al., 2008) study, it is believed that women with anorexia nervosa supported  the idea that in order to be thin is to restrict food intake.  The intervention of changing the patient’s mindset on “expectancy” has been met with the success in previous research.  Even though, studies do not show proof that changing mind sets or personal beliefs reduces anorexia, results from previous studies show consistency in the effectiveness in reducing patient’s negative attitudes and reactions (Annus et al., 2008). 

  

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013).  Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5^th ed.).  Washington, DC:  Author.

Annus, A., Smith, G., Masters, K. (2008).  Manipulation of Thinness and Restricting Expectancies in the Etiology of Eating Disorders.  Psychology of Addictive Behaviors.  22(2), 278-287.

Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (2011).  Casebook in abnormal psychology (4^th ed.).  Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Eagles, J., Johnston, M., & Millar, H. (2005). A case-control study of family composition in anorexia nervosa. The International Journal Of Eating Disorders,38(1), 49-54.

Hohlstein, L.E., Smith, G.T., & Atlas, J.G.  (1998).  An application of expectancy theory to eating disorders:   Development and validation of measures of eating and dieting expectancies.  Psychological Assessment, 10(1), 49-58.
Smolak L. (1996). National Eating Disorders Association/Next Door Neighbors puppet guide book.

Stice, E. (2002).  Risk and maintenance factors for eating  pathology:  A meta-analytic review.  Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 825-848.

Toman, E.C. (1932).  Purposive behavior in animals and men.  New York:  Century.

Additional Source

The Alliance for Eating Disorders Awareness. (2015).  Eating disorder statistics.  Retreived from https://www.ndsu.edu/fileadmin/counseling/Eating_Disorder_Statistics.pdf.

Copyright in 2015 by ©Messenger Publishing, Inc. 

Word of the Week - Psychopathology

Psychopathology - [psy-cho-pa-thol-o-gy] (noun) - The scientific study of the mental and behavioral disorders.  Adjectives - psychopathologic, psychopathological

Wilhelm Wundt’s Methodology and Rules for Introspection

In psychology, introspection tests the state of mind.  Wundt’s methodology and rules of introspection are the following (Schultz, 2012):

• ·         Researcher must know when to start the experiment
• ·         Researcher must be focused and ready to conduct the study
• ·         Must be able to conduct experiment multiple times
• ·         And the experiment must be done in various “experimental” ways in which the “stimuli” can  be “controlled” and changed (Schultz, 2012).

Wundt favored quantitative introspection because he because he believes that basing your experiments on numbers is more accurate than basing it on how you feel or what you perceive as being correct without any supporting documentation/data.

Reference:

Schultz, D.P., & Schultz, S.E. (2012). Philosophical influences on psychology (10^th Eds.), A History of Modern Psychology (pp. 65-86) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Press.

Copyrighted 2014 by Kimberly Swanson (Messenger Publishing, Inc.) all rights reserved